This woman uses positive reinforcement to train her dog. She explains how positive reinforcement works. She explains how it strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response. Dogs are more likely to repeat the response if they are taught with positive reinforcement because they want to be rewarded in a positive way.

This is what sleepwalking looks like. The man is reacting to his video of sleepwalking. He didn't know he did this until he was shown the video of him sleepwalking. Sleepwalking occurs during deep non-REM sleep. Sleepwalking affects an estimated 10% of all population at least once in their lives 

This is token economy. The little girl had to point to the correct numbers in order to get the marbles to trade for lollipops. 

Sleeping Disorders

Sleep Apnea

• A person stops breathing during their sleep
• wake up momentarily, gasps for air, then falls back to sleep
• very common, especially in heavy males 
• can be fatal

Night Terrors

• sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
• occurs in stage 4, not REM, often not remembered 

Insomnia

• persistent problems falling asleep
• effects 10% of population

Narcolepsy 

• suffers from sleeplessness and may fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times
• directly into REM sleep
• less than .001% of population suffer from this

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) 

• sleep walking affects an estimated 10% of all humans at least once in their lives 
• often occurs in deep non-REM sleep 
• (stage 3 and 4) early in the night

Dreams

• a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Manifest Content

• remembered story line of a dream

Latent Content

• underlying meaning of a dream

Information-Processing Theory

• dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day
• REM sleep does increase after stressful events 

Activation- Synthesis Theory

• during the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity 

State of Consciousness: 

Sleep, Hypnosis, Drugs 

Sleep 

• Sleep is a state if consciousness. 
• We are less aware of our surroundings.

Conscious 

• Sub Conscious and u

  nconscious 

Why do we daydream? 

• They can help us prepare for future events. 
• They can nourish our social development. 
• Can substitute for impulsive behavior. 

Fantasy Prone Personalities 

• Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizes. 

Biological Rhythms 

• Annual Cycles: seasonal variations (beard hibernation, seasonal affective disorder) 
• 28 day cycles: menstrual cycle 
• 24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm 
• 90 minute cycle: sleep cycle 

Circadian Rhythm 

• Our 24 hour biological clock. 
• Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day. 

Sleep Stages 

• There are 5 identified stages of sleep. 
• It takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages.
• The brain'a waves will change according to the sleep stage you're in. 
• The first four stages are know as NREM sleep... 
• The fifth stage is called REM sleep. 

Stage 1 

• Kind of awake and kind of asleep. 
• Only lasts a few minutes and you usually only experience it once a night. 
• Eyes begin to roll slightly.
• Your brain produces Theta Waves (high amplitude, low frequency, slow)

Stage 2 

• This follows Stage 1 sleep and is is the "baseline" of sleep. 
• This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep. 
• More Theta Waves that get progressively slower. 

Stages 3 and 4 

• Slow wave sleep.
• You produce Delta waves. 
• If awoken, you sill be very groggy. 
• Vital for restoring body'a growth hormones and good overall health. 
•  May last 15-30 minutes. 
• It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from the "theta" rhythm of Stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called "delta" and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically. 
• Contrary to popular belief, it is delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep (notREM) and the most restorative. 
• It is delta sleep that a sleep-deprived person's brain craves the first and foremost. 
• In children, delta sleep can occupy to 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unawake-able or "dead asleep" during most of the night. 

REM Sleep 

• Rapid Eye Movement 
• Often called paradoxical sleep.
• Brain is very active. 
• Dreams usually occur in REM 
• Body is essentially paralyzed. 

Stage Five: REM SLEEP 

• Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep. 
• Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken. 
• Vivid Dreams can occur. 
• From REM, you go back to Stage 2. 

*we all need different amounts of sleep depending on our age and genetics

*we all sleep about 25 years on average.

Token Economy 

• Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given. 
• They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) 
• Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools. 

Observational Learning 

• Albert Banduts and his Bobo Doll 
• We learn through modeling behavior from others. 
• Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory 

Latent Learning 

• Edward stole man 
• Three rat experiment 
• Latent means hidden 
• Sometimes learning is not immediately evident. 
• Rats needed a reason to display what they learned. 

Insight Learning 

• Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees.
• Some animals learn through the "ah ha" experience.

Operant Conditioning 

• A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment. 

Classical VS. Operant 

• They both use acquisition, discrimination, SR, generalization, and extinction.
• Classical Conditioning is automatic (respondent behavior). Dogs automatically salivate over meat, then bell- no thinking involved. 
• Operant Conditioning involves behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences. (Operant behavior).

The Law of Effect 

• Edward Thorndike
• Law of Effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur. 

B. F. Skinner 

• Comes up w/ a term - Shaping: a procedure in Operant Conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards the goal. 

Reinforcer 

• Any event that STRENGTHENS the behavior it follows.
• Two types if Reinforcement: positive & negative. 

Positive Reinforcement 

• Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response. 

Negative Reinforcement 

• Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. 

Primary Reinforcer 

• An innately reinforcing stimulus 

Conditioned (secondary) Reinforcer 

• A stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. 

Punishment 

• An event that DECREASES the behavior that it follows. 
• Does punishment work? 

Continuous Reinforcement 

• Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
• Ex: putting money into a vending machines, food comes out.

Partial Reinformemt 

• Reinforcing a response only part of the time. 
• The acquisition process is slower. 
• Greater resistance to extinction. 

Fixed - Ratio Schedules 

• A scheduled that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. 
• Ex: I give Cookie Monster a cookie every give times he sings "C is for cookie". 

Variable-ratio Schedule 

• A schedule if reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. 
• Ex: I give Homer a donut at random times when he says "DOH!!!" 

Fixed - Interval Schedule 

• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. 
• Ex: I give Bart a Butterfinger even minutes after he moons someone. 

Variable - interval Schedule 

• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time interval. 
• Ex: Pop Quizzes.