• Types of Long- Term Memory:
• Explicit(declarative): w/ conscious recall/ general knowledge 
• Implicit(non-declarative):w/o conscious recall/ motor cognitive (routine)

Types of Retrieval Failure: 

• Proactive Interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
• Retroactive Interference: disruptive effect of old info. new learning on the recall of old info. 

Misinformation Effect: 

• incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event.
• depiction of an accident

Associative Learning:

• Learning that certain events occur together. 
• Ex: Cooking, lose weight 

Three Main Types of Learning 

Classical Conditioning 

It's all started with: Ivan Pavlov. Tested theory on dogs. 

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. 
• Unconditional Response (UCR): the unlearned, naturally occurring response go the UCS. 
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response. 
• Conditioned Response (CR): the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. 
• Classical conditioning: obedience, used dogs to study.

Acquisition 

• The initial stage of learning 
• The phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR (this becoming the CS). 

Extinction 

• The diminishing of a conditioned response. 
• Will eventually happen when the UCS doesn't follow the CS.

Spontaneous Recovery 

• The reappearance. After a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response. 

Generalization 

• The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli to the CS to elicit 

Discrimination 

• The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that doesn't signal UCS   

1. Next-in-Line Effect: We seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next.
2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered. 
3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it. 

Spacing Effect 

• We encode better when we practice or study over time. 
• DO NOT CRAM!! 

Serial Positioning Effect 

• Our tendency to recall best the best the first and last items in a list. 

Chunking: 

• Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
• Often will occur automatically. 

Types of Encoding:

• Semantic Encoding: the meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound especially of words
• Visual Encoding: encoding of picture images 

Tricks to Encode:

• use imagery- mental pictures 
• Mnemonic Devices use imagery
• Ex: Mary very easily makes jam Saturday unless no plums= mars,venus, earth, mercury, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune, and pluto

Memory 

• The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information. 

The Memory Process 

• Encoding 
• Storage 
• Retrieval 

Encoding 

• The processing of information into the memory system. 
• Ex: asking a girl's number from a party

Storage 

• The retention of encoded material over time.

Retrieval 

• The process of getting the information out of memory storage 
• Ex: seeing a girl at the party but forgetting her name and calling her by the wrong name. 

Recall VS. Recognition

• With Recall - you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill-in-the blank tests).
• With Recognition - you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests).

Flashbulb Memory 

• A clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event. 
• Where were you when?
• You heard about 9/11? You heard the death of a family member? 

Types of Memory 

• Sensory Memory 
• Short - Term Memory 
• Working Memory 

Sensory Memory 

• The immediate, initial recording if sensory information in the memory system. 
• Stored just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed. 
• Ex: you lose concentration in class during a lecture. Suddenly you hear a significant word and return your focus to the lecture. You should be able to remember what was just before the key word since it's in your sensory register. 

Short - Term Memory 

• Memory that holds a few items briefly. 
• Seven digits (plus of minus two) 
• The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten. 

Working Memory (Modern day STM)

• Another way of describing the use of short-term memory is called working memory. 
• Working - Memory has three parts:
• 1. Audio 2. Visual 3. Integration of audio & visual (controls where attention lies) 

Long- Term Memory 

• The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. 

Automatic Processing 

• Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
• You encode space, time, and word meaning without effort. 
• Things can become automatic with practice 

Effortful Processing 

• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. 
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique. 
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic. 

Intelligence

Intelligence

• refers to the abilities involved in learning or having adaptive abilities

Achievement Test

• tests that gauge a person's mastery and knowledge of subjects

Aptitude Test

• tests used to assess talent for specific types of mental ability

Convergent Thinking

• narrowing down a list of alternatives to converge on a single answer

Divergent Thinking

• trying to expand the range of alternatives by generating many possible solutions

Factor Analysis

• statistical analysis of correlations among many variables to identify closely related clusters of variables

Gardner

• theory of multiple intelligences
• logical-mathematics, spatial,bodily-kinesthetic, etc

IQ Formula

• a child's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Mental Age

• a score that indicates that a child displays the mental ability typical of the child's age

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

• created by Wechsler
• most widely used intelligence test
• it measures verbal and nonverbal intelligence

Stanford-Binet

• widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
• revised by Terman

Terman

• revised Binet's IQ test
• established norms for american children

Spearman

• found that specific mental talents were highly correlated
• concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which we labeled as g (general ability)

Language: 

Babbling Stage

• at about 4-7 months
• stage of speech development where the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language 

This is a video of twin babies having a conversation with each other. They are still in the babbling stage.

Benjamin Whorf

• his theory is that language determines the way we think

Grammar 

• determines how sounds and words can be combined
• used to communicate meaning within a language
• has two components which are syntax and semantics.

Morpheme 

• smallest meaningful units of speech
• simple words, suffixes, or prefixes
• Ex: calm, hot

Phonemes 

• basic sounds units 
• indicates the change in meaning

One-word Stage

• the stage in speech development where a child speaks mostly in single words
• from about 1 to 2 years old

Two-word Stage

• beginning at about 2 years old
• stage in speech development where a child speaks two worded statements

Semantics

• the study of meaning in language

Syntax

• studies of the rules for forming admissible sentences

Telegraphic Stage

• early speech stage where the child talks like a telegram
• Ex: "Go car"

Noam Chomsky 

• Stated there is an infinite number of sentences in a language
• humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Thinking:

Algorithm

• a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem

Available Heuristics

• estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.

Cognition

• all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating 

Confirmation Bias

• the tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions

Functional Fixedness

• the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

Heuristics 

• a simple thinking strategy that allows you to make judgments and problem solving more efficient. 
• more error prone than algorithms 

Mental Set

• the tendency to approach a problem in a certain way
• using a way that's been successful 

Over Confidence

• the tendency to be more confident than correct
• they overestimate their judgments and beliefs

Representative Heuristics 

• judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent/ match the prototype. 
• this could lead someone to ignore relevant information 

This is a labeled diagram of the ear.